Mill Heritage of Cyprus

When the windmill first appeared in Cyprus remains obscure. Written sources indicate their existence during the Venetian period (1489-1570), probably even earlier. By the beginning of the 20th century, they were gradually replaced by steam-powered mills. The few grain-grinding windmills traced so far in several parts of the island, show a typological homogeneity. They seem to belong to the Mediterranean type of cylindrical tower mills with rotatable cap and vertical wheel (moulin tour), a type which has been traced from the Dardanelles to the coasts of North Africa. Traditional windmills were absolutely dependent on weather conditions; because their mechanism needed strong wind, they were usually built on high ground, also on flat ground with open space around them. In Cyprus weather conditions were not so favourable for the exploitation of aeolic power. Thus, windmills were used as complementary in regions where weather allowed their functioning and water was not adequate for the operation of watermills

Mule-driven mills are documented for the Medieval period in Famagusta (Ammochostos) and Nicosia. They were traditionally used down to the 20th century in Mesaoria, the “granary” of Cyprus, where there was neither water nor adequate wind power for other kinds of grain-grinding mills. Animal-driven mills were also popular in the Karpas peninsula, where ruins of small circular buildings, still preserved in Rizokarpaso (Anavrysi), recall a mule-driven mill photographed in the same area by Magda Ohnefalsch-Richter in 1894. However, animal-powered mills were also housed in spacious traditional buildings, which provided enough room for the typical big wooden wheel and the animal that turned it. An example of such a wooden wheel was brought to Nicosia from Rizokarpaso and is now a museum piece.

Waterpower has been the most common source of energy exploited for grinding purposes and the watermill was the most widespread kind of mill in Cyprus. The presence of watermills on the island is documented from the 12th to the 20th century and more than 300 examples are still preserved, most of them in a ruinous state. The operation of hundreds of watermills presupposes plenty of water. In fact, the geological evolution of the Troodos mountain range over more than 20 million years, especially its differential uplifting, created an impressive topography with an altitude of about 2,000m. The topography increased dramatically the perennial precipitation (more than 1,000mm) and the penetration of water into its deeper parts. This underground water formed springs at various elevations of the Troodos mountain range and supplied water to the rivers even during the dry seasons. Hydraulic infrastructure works made in order to divert, collect, store and direct the water, form an important part of the watermill. Water from river or spring was directed to the mill by means of a feeder channel, which could be dug out of the earth, or rock-cut, and then continued with an aqueduct that brought the water to a tower-like mill race. The aqueduct, in the form of a rendered channel, ran along the top of a tall stout wall, sometimes with buttresses on either side. In other cases the aqueduct was carried on an arch or a series of arches. The water channel ended on the top of the shaft of the tower. The penstock or chute conveyed the water down behind the working floor of the mill building, where the grinding mechanism with the millstones was installed, to the nozzle in the wheel chamber. The vast majority of Cypriot watermills were provided with a horizontal wheel; there are only a few examples with a vertical, externally mounted wheel.

As a rule, mills were built in sites with a steep incline, which allowed for a fast flow of water above the mill and an efficient run off below. The features of the landscape were utilized to the utmost.

The droptower is the dominant feature of the watermill. In most surviving examples it is square or rectangular in plan with steps on the front or on all three sides, or even cylindrical in some cases. Aqueducts and water towers are impressive stone built structures, which still form a striking feature of the Cypriot landscape. The use of local stone in each case differentiates their masonry and general morphology. The mill building is placed in contact with the lower visible part of the tower. Adjoining or separate auxiliary rooms served as storerooms or stables. The miller’s residence could be either part of the same building or a separate unit nearby.

In some areas (e.g. Kritou Terra, Lapithos) mills were arranged in small groups or in larger complexes along the river, making use of the water one after another. The most interesting case were the 32 mills of Kythrea, which were fed from the head-spring.

The decline of traditional watermills in the course of the 20th century was due to several factors, such as the development of technology, increasing urbanization, merchant milling, etc. A crucial factor was the decrease in rainfall, which, combined with the overexploitation of water resources, deprived mills of their driving power.